Aggregates play a key role in protecting soil organic carbon (SOC) from microbial decomposition. The objectives of this study were to investigate the influence of pore geometry on the organic carbon decomposition rate and bacterial diversity in both macro- (250-2000 μm) and micro-aggregates (53-250 μm) using field samples. Four sites of contrasting land use on Alfisols (i.e. native pasture, crop/pasture rotation, woodland) were investigated. 3D Pore geometry of the micro-aggregates and macro-aggregates were examined by X-ray computed tomography (μCT). The occluded particulate organic carbon (oPOC) of aggregates was measured by size and density fractionation methods. Microaggregates had 54% less μCT observed porosity but 64% more oPOC compared with macro-aggregates. In addition, the pore connectivity in micro-aggregates was lower than macro-aggregates. Despite both lower μCT observed porosity and pore connectivity in micro-aggregates, the organic carbon decomposition rate constant (Ksoc) was similar in both aggregate size ranges. Structural equation modelling showed a strong positive relationship of the concentration of oPOC with bacterial diversity in aggregates. We use these findings to propose a conceptual model that illustrates the dynamic links between substrate, bacterial diversity, and pore geometry that suggests a structural explanation for differences in bacterial diversity across aggregate sizes.

Understanding the changes in soil organic matter (SOM) composition during aggregate formation is crucial to explain the stabilization of SOM in aggregates. The objectives of this study were to investigate (i) the composition of SOM associated with different aggregates and size-density fractions and (ii) the role of selective preservation in determining the composition of organic matter in aggregate and size-density fractions. Surface soil samples were collected from an Alfisol on the Northern Tablelands of NSW, Australia, with contrasting land uses of native pasture, crop-pasture rotation and woodland. Solid-state 13C cross-polarization and magic angle spinning (CPMAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to determine the SOM composition in macroaggregates (250-2000 μm), microaggregates (53-250 μm), and <53-μm fraction. The chemical composition of light fraction (LF), coarse particulate organic matter (cPOM), fine particulate organic matter (fPOM), and mineral-associated soil organic matter (mSOM) were also determined. The major constituent of SOM of aggregate size fractions was O-alkyl carbon, which represented 44-57% of the total signal acquired, whereas alkyl carbon contributed 16-27%. There was a progressive increase in alkyl carbon content with decrease in aggregate size. Results suggest that SOM associated with the <53-μm fraction was at a more advanced stage of decomposition than that of macroaggregates and microaggregates. The LF and cPOM were dominated by O-alkyl carbon while alkyl carbon content was high in fPOM and mSOM. Interestingly, the relative change in O-alkyl, alkyl, and aromatic carbon between aggregates and SOM fractions revealed that microbial synthesis and decomposition of organic matter along with selective preservation of alkyl and aromatic carbon play significant roles in determining the composition of organic matter in aggregates.

The performance of the Rothamsted Carbon Model (RothC) in simulating soil carbon (SOC) storage in cotton based cropping systems under different tillage management practices on an irrigated Vertisol in semi-arid, subtropics was evaluated using data from a long-term (1994-2012) cotton cropping systems experiment near Narrabri in north-western New South Wales, Australia. The experimental treatments were continuous cotton/conventional tillage (CC/CT), continuous cotton/minimum tillage (CC/MT), and cotton-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation/minimum tillage (CW/MT). Soil carbon (C) input was calculated by published functions that relate crop yield to soil C input. Measured values showed a loss in SOC of 34%, 24% and 31% of the initial SOC storages within 19 years (1994-2012) under CC/CT, CC/MT, and CW/MT, respectively. RothC satisfactorily simulated the dynamics of SOC in cotton based cropping systems under minimum tillage (CC/MT and CW/MT), whereas the model performance was poor under intensive conventional tillage (CC/CT). The model RothC overestimated SOC storage in cotton cropping under conventional intensive tillage management system. This over estimation could not be attributed to the overestimation of soil C inputs, or errors in initial quantification of SOC pools for model initialization, or the ratio of incoming decomposable plant materials to resistant plant materials. Among other different factors affecting SOC dynamics and its modelling under intensive tillage in tropics and sub-tropics, we conclude that factors for tillage and soil erosion might be needed when modelling SOC dynamics using RothC under intensive tillage management system in the tropics and the sub-tropics.

Measuring soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization in macro-aggregates (250-2000 μm), micro-aggregates (250-53 μm) and the < 53 μm fraction helps to understand how spatial separation of SOC inside soil aggregates regulates its dynamics. We hypothesized that (i) compared with macro-aggregates SOC mineralization rate of micro-aggregates would be slower, (ii) adsorption of SOC on < 53 μm fraction decreases the SOC mineralization rate, and (iii) land use has a significant influence on SOC decomposition rate. To test these hypotheses we collected topsoil from Dermosol (Acrisols in FAO Soil Classification) sites under three contrasting land uses namely native pasture (NP), crop-pasture rotation (CP) and woodland (WL).

The conventional model of aggregate formation suggests a hierarchy where micro-aggregates with lower porosity and therefore reduced soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization form inside macro-aggregates. This model has however been questioned for highly weathered Oxisols where inconclusive results regarding the presence of aggregate hierarchy have been obtained to date. We hypothesized that in Oxisols (i) an aggregate hierarchy would be present (ii) the porosity of micro-aggregates would be lower than that of macro-aggregates and (iii) pore geometry of aggregates would influence SOC mineralization. We collected topsoils from Oxisols in northern New South Wales, Australia from which macro-aggregates (>250 μm), micro-aggregates (53-250 μm) and <53 μm fractions were isolated from bulk soil by wet sieving. 3D images of macro- and micro-aggregates were produced using X-ray computed tomography (μCT) showing the presence of micro-aggregates inside macro-aggregates, which confirmed the presence of an aggregate hierarchy in the Oxisols studied. Macro-aggregates were more common and SOC in higher concentrations in forest systems compared with agricultural (the cultivation or pasture) land-uses, but aggregate geometry differed little between the land-uses studied. The porosity of macro-aggregates (4%) was significantly lower than micro-aggregates (5.5%). Despite the differences in pore geometry between macro- and micro-aggregates, SOC mineralized (SOC'min') during a 2-month incubation (at 25°C) was similar in macro- (3% of SOC concentration) and micro-aggregates (2.8% of SOC concentration). We conclude that although aggregate hierarchy exists in these soils and that aggregate geometry did differ between aggregate size classes, there was no evidence to support the porosity exclusion principle and the assumption that SOC is preferentially stabilized within micro-aggregates in these soils.

The allocation of soil organic carbon (SOC) to its component fractions can indicate the vulnerability of organic carbon stocks to change. The impact of vetiver on the composition and distribution of SOC can provide a complete assessment of its potential to sequester carbon in soil.

Purpose: This study quantified the distribution and impact of SOC under vetiver and the allocation of SOC to particulate (POC), humus (HOC) and resistant (ROC) fractions differentiated based on particle size and chemical composition under vetiver grass compared with other plant types.

Methods: Carbon fractions were measured on soil samples collected from Australia and Ethiopia to a depth of 1.0 m under three plant communities (vetiver, coffee, and Australian native pastures). We used the MIR/PLSR spectra to estimate SOC fractions based on fractionated, and NMR measured values.

Results: The stocks of SOC fractions indicated significant differences in the proportion of labile POC to HOC across sites and vegetation types. The dominant carbon fraction was HOC (71%) for all vegetation types. The average carbon sequestration rate under vetiver for OC was −2.64 to +7.69 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ , while for the POC, HOC and ROC was 0.04 to +1.17, -3.36 to +4.64 and −0.35 to +1.51 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ , respectively.

Conclusion: Growing vetiver and undisturbed native pastures has on average a high accumulation rate of a more stable carbon (HOC) which is less vulnerable to change, and change was largely driven by the HOC fraction. We, therefore, recommend the use and promotion of perennial tropical grasses like vetiver and similar grasses and undisturbed native pastures as potential options to facilitate soil carbon sequestration.

Understanding the interactions between the initial biochemical composition and subsequent decomposition of plant litter will improve our understanding of its influence on microbial substrate use to explain the flow of organic matter between soil carbon pools. We determined the effects of land use (cultivation/native woodland/native pasture), litter type (above and below ground) and their interaction on the initial biochemical composition (carbon, nitrogen, water soluble carbon, lignin, tannin and cellulose) and decomposition of litter. Litter decomposition was studied as the mineralization of C from litter by microbial respiration and was measured as CO₂-C production during 105 d of laboratory incubation with soil. A two-pool model was used to quantify C mineralization kinetics. For all litter types, the active C pool decay rate constants ranged from 0.072 d⁻¹ to 0.805 d⁻¹ which represented relatively short half-lives of between 1 and 10 days, implying that this pool contained compounds that were rapidly mineralized by microbes during the initial stages of incubation. Conversely, the decay rate constants for the slow C pool varied widely between litter types within and among land uses ranging from 0.002 d⁻¹and 0.019 d⁻¹ representing half-lives of between 37 and 446 days. In all litter types, the initial lignin:N ratio strongly and negatively influenced the decay rate of the slow C pool which implied that the interaction between these two litter quality variables had important controls over the decomposition of the litter slow C pool. We interpret our results to suggest that where the flow of C from the active pool to the slow pool is largely driven by microbial activity in soil, the rate of transfer of C will be largely controlled by the quality of litter under different land-use systems and particularly the initial lignin:N ratio of the litter. Compared with native pastures and cultivation, above and below ground litter from native woodland was characterized by higher lignin:N ratio and more slowly decomposing slow C pools which implies that litter is likely to persist in soils, however based on the sandy nature of the soils in this study, it is likely to lack protection from microbial degradation in the long term.

Radiocarbon is a useful tool for studying carbon dynamics in soil aggregates. The objective of the current study was to determine the mean residence time (MRT) of soil organic carbon (SOC) in macroaggregates and microaggregates under contrasting land uses. Contrasting land uses investigated at Alfisol (equivalent to Dermosol in Australian Soil Classification) sites were native pasture (NP), crop-pasture rotation (CP), and Eucalypt woodland (WL), whereas in Oxisol (Ferrosol in Australian Soil Classification) sites, land uses comprised improved pasture (IP), cropping (CR), and forest (FR). Soil aggregates were separated into macroaggregates (250-2000 μm) and microaggregates (53-250 μm) by wet-sieving, and their 14C signatures were determined by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). The 14C activity in both macro- and microaggregates was >100 pMC, indicating the presence of post-bomb carbon in the soil. The mean residence time (MRT) of SOC in macro- and microaggregates (MRTagg) was on average 68 yr longer in the Oxisol compared with that in the Alfisol. The MRTagg in microaggregates was 10 yr longer than that of macroaggregates in the Alfisol. However, the MRTagg in microaggregates was 50 yr shorter compared to macroaggregates in the Oxisol. The MRT of macro- and microaggregates can be separated into active, slow, and stable SOC pools. Among the 3 SOC pools, the MRT of the stable pool is of higher significance in terms of SOC stabilization in soil aggregates because of its longer MRT. However, isolation and direct MRT estimation of the stable SOC pool is difficult. The MRT of active and slow SOC pools associated with macro- and microaggregates was measured using a SOC mineralization experiment to estimate the MRT of the stable SOC pool under contrasting land uses by applying a mass balance criterion. The MRT of active (MRTA) and slow (MRTS) SOC pools in macro- and microaggregates varied between 1-50 days and 13-38 yr, respectively. The estimated MRT of the stable pool carbon (MRTP) in microaggregates was 897 yr longer compared to that of macroaggregates in the Alfisol. However, in the Oxisol, MRTP in microaggregates was 568 yr shorter than that of macroaggregates. Among the land uses, WL in Alfisol and CR in Oxisol had longer MRTagg and MRTP compared to other land uses.

Soil microaggregates play a key role in stabilization of soil organic carbon (SOC) and influence dynamics of SOC in terrestrial ecosystem. SOC can be stabilized in microaggregates through physical, physico-chemical and biochemical protection mechanisms. The study of SOC stabilization mechanisms poses a number of challenges. Firstly, all these mechanisms operate simultaneously in nature and, secondly there are significant methodological constraints of separating SOC fractions with different turnover times. Moreover, the importance of various stabilization mechanisms varies considerably in different climates, soil types and management systems. The overarching hypotheses of the study were (i) physical protection of SOC is a dominant SOC stabilization mechanism in soil microaggregates over physico-chemical protection (ii) land use and soil type determines the relative importance of different stabilization mechanisms. The specific objectives of the research work were to investigate (i) the SOC stabilization in water stable aggregates (ii) microbial decomposition of SOC and its relationship with chemical composition of SOC and pore geometry of microaggregates (iii) the mean residence time of SOC in microaggregates and (iv) the influence of land uses on the distribution and stabilization of SOC in microaggregates. Two soil types were investigated, Alfisols and Oxisols, both located on the Northern Tablelands, NSW, Australia.

Soil acidification is one of Australia's major land degradation problems. About half of the more intensively used agricultural land in Australia is acidic, and the area is expanding. The gross value of agricultural production lost nationally each year due to soil acidity has been estimated at $1585 million, compared to $187 million for dryland salinity. For NSW alone the corresponding estimates are $378 million for soil acidity and $6 million for dryland salinity. The rate of spread of soil acidity is not known with any degree of certainty. One estimate is that, in the absence of remedial action, an additional 2.7 to 6 million hectares of Australian agricultural land could reach the strongly acidic threshold (pHCa = 4.8) each year.Although it has been known for over 60 years that Australian agricultural practices can cause soil acidification, recognition of its significance has been slow. Currently farmers perceive soil acidity to be not much more of a problem than dryland salinity. Soil acidity has been managed mainly as an agronomic, paddock scale problem, and there has been considerable research into liming and plant adaptation to acidic soils. These areas will continue to be important. However the great extent of the problem, limitations to the economic viability of liming on more extensive grazing land, and the occurrence of off-site and long term effects, indicate that additional work is needed to address the problem from a broader natural resource management perspective. The causes of soil acidification have features in common with those of salinity and erosion, in that all are associated with increased leakage of water and nutrients from agricultural systems compared to pre-European landscapes. There has been little integration of research and management of soil acidification with other hydrologically based soil degradation problems.