Understanding the distribution of threatened species is key to informing their conservation. Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) is used for a wide range of conservation purposes, and can identify areas of suitable habitat and guide targeted field surveys to help refine our knowledge of a species' current geographic range. The brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) is listed as endangered in NSW, with the central Evolutionary Significant Unit (cESU) of this species being of particular conservation concern. This species inhabits rocky refugia in rugged and often remote terrain, making it particularly difficult to survey. As a result, there is limited understanding of its current distribution.

Reptiles and amphibians are critical for ecosystem function and yet they are declining globally. Despite substantial investigation in the broader South Asia region, knowledge of reptiles and amphibians has been largely overlooked in Bhutan. Therefore, my thesis aims to address this gap in our knowledge by addressing the conservation needs and ecological requirements of these taxa, providing valuable insights to inform effective conservation strategies in the unique context of Bhutan.

To determine research gaps and opportunities for scientific advances, I completed a literature review on amphibians and reptiles of Bhutan in Chapter 2 of my thesis. Of the 63 accessible studies on the herpetofauna of Bhutan conducted between 1972 and 2022, the majority (52 studies) emerged after 2009. Predominantly focusing on reptiles (45%) and amphibians (32%), with a lesser proportion (23%) involving both taxa, the research landscape exhibited biases in research type, and study locations. While ecological aspects were more widely explored in publications (35 studies), there was a notable dearth in research related to conservation (22 studies), taxonomy, systematics, diseases, genetics, anatomy, and physiology. Therefore, prioritising intensified conservation-oriented investigations, emphasizing aspects such as diversity, distribution, diseases, genetics, physiology, anatomy and threats to amphibians and reptiles would be of value in future, to provide key information for effective conservation strategies in Bhutan.

In Chapter 3, the value of a citizen science using, the “Amphibians and Reptiles of Bhutan: Citizen Research Initiative” was quantified and I gathered 929 species records from 235 individuals with different professions, revealing the significant role of non-experts in expanding knowledge, with 70% of records extending species ranges and over 48 species representing new records for Bhutan (Annexure I). Thus, encouraging and supporting citizen science initiatives proved instrumental in overcoming knowledge gaps and enhancing the understanding of poorly documented fauna in Bhutan.

Using data from the second and third chapter, in Chapter 4, I used a MaxEnt model to examine the distribution and climatic suitability of the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) in Bhutan. My findings indicated the suitable area is currently 11857 km² in the Kingdom. With elevation (43.6%) and land use, and land cover (30.2%) substantially contributing to the performance of the model, the habitat suitability is expected to increase in the future due to climate change, potentially leading to an increase in human-snake conflicts. Therefore, effective conservation and protection strategies for O. hannah require public awareness and educational campaigns to highlight the species’ conservation and ecological importance. Further research on climate related affects to the species conservation and implementation of area and species-specific protection based on the results of this study is highly recommended.

The importance of human-wildlife interactions in shaping conservation became a clear trend in my thesis so in order to better understand how the community views reptiles and amphibians in Bhutan, in Chapter 5, I investigated the public attitudes towards frogs and snakes in Bhutan. I explored how attitudes differed with a person’s geographical location, whether they lived within or outside a protected area, age, gender, income level, and education level. Women showed agreater tendency to dislike both snakes and frogs and age group differences in men influenced aversion to towards snakes, with younger people disliking snakes more. The religious and cultural significance of snakes influenced the beliefs towards snakes while appearance and abundance influenced the beliefs towards frogs. While the results of my study challenge assumptions about the impact of residency in protected areas on attitudes, I found most of the respondents willing to support the conservation of snakes and frogs. Therefore, I recommend harnessing the conservation will of the Bhutanese community to improve protection for herpeofauna in Bhutan.

Collectively, my findings pave the way for a more informed and inclusive future in Bhutan’s biodiversity conservation efforts. By addressing research gaps, engaging citizens, and understanding habitat dynamics, this research sets the stage for targeted and effective conservation strategies. The exploration of public sentiments adds a crucial socio-cultural dimension, enabling the development of people-inclusive conservation initiatives. Integrating these insights, the future holds the promise of a holistic and sustainable approach to preserving Bhutan’s diverse herpetofauna, ensuring their continued existence for generations to come.

Bhutan has an extensive protected area network and people living inside are integral partners with the conservation landscape. Despite this, little is known on local people's traditional knowledge, cultural beliefs, and perceptions on wildlife. We investigated drivers of local knowledge, threats and cultural significance of the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) through semi-structured questionnaire surveys (N= 664 participants) on local residents in Jigme Dorji and Phrumsengla National Parks. A conditional inference tree analysis explained that knowledge of the red panda and encounters with the species varied by demography, occupation and locality. Although the majority of respondents were not knowledgeable of the species, residents living within the elevational range of red pandas exhibited greater knowledge. Civil servants, farmers, foresters, park staff, and teachers also had significantly greater knowledge of red pandas than monks, road workers, and students. Informally educated older (≥41 years) respondents placed higher cultural significance on the red panda relative to much younger respondents. Although past studies in Jigme Dorji National Park have identified habitat destruction and fragmentation due to linear infrastructural development – such as the construction of new power transmission lines – as significant anthropogenic threats to the red panda, respondents listed only non-timber forest products collection, forest fires, timber and firewood harvesting, climate change, livestock grazing, and kills by domestic dogs as some of the most prevailing threats to the red panda in our study area. Recognizing and incorporating the intrinsic value of wildlife within the protected area–people framework and utilizing traditional cultural perceptions of threatened species like the red panda, can be a valuable tool in strengthening public support for species conservation. This study further advocates an urgent need for educational programs to promote ecological and cultural values of the red panda in schools and the wider public.

Fungal consumption (mycophagy) by vertebrates has been reported for numerous species, but until this thesis, there has been no global synthesis of the topic. Through a combination of novel research and comprehensive literature reviews, I investigated the ecological implications of vertebrate mycophagy for fungal spore dispersers, fungal ecology, plant ecology, animal food choice and animal behaviour. This thesis demonstrates that vertebrate mycophagy directly impacts most terrestrial ecosystems and is especially relevant to many plants, animals and fungi. I have taken three different methodological approaches in this thesis.

First, I systematically reviewed mycophagy among all terrestrial vertebrate taxa. This extensive global literature review yielded three chapters (and manuscripts): one on mammals, another on reptiles and a third on birds (Chapters 2, 6 and 7, respectively). These reviews of approximately 1,500 references in more than five languages report mycophagy among nearly 600 mammals, reptiles and birds. (Despite an exhaustive search, I could find no evidence of amphibian mycophagy.) These reviews lay the groundwork for and are integral parts of my thesis.

Second, I directly studied vertebrate mycophagy through observations and/or faecal and stomach analyses (Chapter 3, 4, 5 and 8). I collected empirical dietary data through microanalysis of animal scats acquired by live-trapping animals or by examining stomach contents of preserved museum collections. I obtained observational feeding data by watching wild animals directly, or by deploying motion-activated camera traps that recorded the behaviours of mycophagists. These studies provided new dietary data for vertebrates and showcased the previously overlooked ecological services that they provide.

Third, I used a modelling approach to determine the dispersal potential of primary and secondary mycophagy (Chapter 5 and Supplementary Material). By using a combination of passage rate data and movement patterns gathered from animals fitted with GPS tracking devices, I was able to show that some animals have the potential to disperse mycorrhizal fungal spores more than 10 km from the point of ingestion (Chapter 5). This is the first application of modelling to mycophagy research and the first direct investigation of secondary spore dispersal.

This thesis presents novel concepts about mycophagy and an in-depth study of the ecological importance of associations between vertebrates and fungi around the world.

The biodiversity crisis is exacerbated by a growing human population modifying nearly three-quarters of the Earth's land surface area for anthropogenic uses. Habitat loss and modification represent the largest threat to biodiversity and finding ways to offset species decline has been a significant undertaking for conservation. Landscape planning and conservation strategies can enhance habitat suitability for biodiversity in human-modified landscapes. Artificial habitat structures such as artificial reefs, nest boxes, chainsaw hollows, artificial burrows, and artificial hibernacula have all been successfully implemented to improve species survival in human-modified and fragmented landscapes. As the global shift towards renewable energy sources continues to rise, the development of photovoltaic systems is growing exponentially. Large-scale renewable projects, such as photovoltaic solar farms have large space requirements and thus have the potential to displace local wildlife. We discuss the feasibility of 'conservoltaic systems' – photovoltaic systems that incorporate elements tailored specifically to enhance wildlife habitat suitability and species conservation. Artificial habitat structures can potentially lessen the impacts of industrial development (e.g., photovoltaic solar farms) through strategic landscape planning and an understanding of local biodiversity requirements to facilitate recolonization.

This review paper describes the overall status, distribution, threats, and conservation initiatives of tigers Panthera tigris tigris inside the Sarpang district of Bhutan. This systematic review suggests pertinent management initiatives against each identified threat to ensure long-term conservation of tigers in the southern central landscape of Sarpang district in Bhutan.