While aspiring to balance socio-economic development with conservation of the natural environment, and achieve Gross National Happiness (GNH), Bhutan is facing environmental sustainability challenges. Education is recognised as a key tool for responding to these challenges and, to this end, an Environmental Science (ES) subject was introduced to secondary schools in 2015 based on an Environmental Science Curriculum Framework (ESCF).

In this research project I investigate the question: How is Environmental Science (ES) being implemented and experienced in schools in the Samste District of Bhutan? Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) was adopted as a key referent for this study, because of its relevance both to Bhutan as a developing country and the objectives of the ESCF. The study was framed within a pragmatic paradigm and I employed mixed-methods, comprising document analysis, classroom observations, interviews and surveys, involving students, teachers and principals. The qualitative data were analysed inductively and deductively using NVivo, and quantitative data were analysed descriptively using SPSS and Excel.

Climate change was identified as an environmental problem for Bhutan by relatively few participants, despite its predicted negative impact on the nation. The collective agency towards solving environmental problems expressed by students, reflecting cultural mores of working in unity and harmony towards common goals, provides potential scope and leverage for collective action towards addressing climate change and other environmental issues, starting from actions in ES.

Anthropocentric worldviews were more evident than eco- or biocentrism in the textbooks and interviews. This reflects the anthropocentrism of GNH, which, although emphasising harmony with nature and conservation, subsumes these considerations under the ultimate goal of addressing human happiness. Navigating Bhutan’s Middle Path between competing priorities of socio-economic development and environmental conservation may be aided by some exploration of eco- or biocentrism in ES materials, together with critical eco-pedagogy.

Some misalignment within and between elements of ES and related educational policies was evident through analysis of texts, examinations and classroom pedagogy.

A strong knowledge focus in texts and exams, and the finding that high-stakes exams did not assess students’ dispositions and competencies, may restrict student achievement of the more transformative objectives of the ESCF. Relatively frequent transmissive pedagogies were apparent, together with limited community participation, experiential or action-oriented pedagogy. These findings were at odds with constructivist approaches to teaching advocated by the Ministry of Education, experiential learning advocated in the ESCF, and the competencies and actionoriented tenets of ESD. Other findings revealed some duplication of content within ES, and between ES and other science and geography subjects, and limited interdisciplinarity within ES.

As a consequence of these misalignments, some modifications to the ES subject are indicated. Future review of ES might consider increasing the complexity of content in higher grades, reducing the volume of factual content knowledge to enable integration of action-oriented, participatory activities, and fostering greater interdisciplinarity. Assessment of students’ dispositions, skills and action may reposition teaching and learning towards the ESCF objectives. Within the ESCF, greater definitional clarity about the interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary nature of ES, and the meaning of the term “action” could be beneficial.

Students’ intrinsic motivations to study ES, their enjoyment of the subject and their apparent development of optimism, agency and stewardship from ES suggest that ES is a valuable curriculum offering, a view shared by teachers. Constructivist, experiential and action-oriented pedagogies in ES, potentially connecting with existing school-wide environmental activities, might further capitalise on students’ existing engagement with the subject in achieving the ESCF objectives. Critical pedagogy might build on students’ stewardship agency and optimism to enhance their critical thinking competency and capacity to challenge their own practices and thinking. These potential pedagogical changes require adequate curriculum time and financial resources (including for field trips), availability of necessary ICT and support for teachers through preservice training in ESD and relevant collaborative in-service professional learning and development. Finally, ES stakeholders generally valued the idea of taking action to solve environmental problems in ES. These potential changes to what is already a valuable subject could contribute even further to the achievement of the visions and aspirations of Bhutan towards sustainable environmental conservation and GNH.