Protected forest areas worldwide are located close to forest dependent communities that continue to use forest resources for their livelihoods to varying extents. With these areas designated as protected areas it prevents local people from practising their traditional income-generating or subsistence activities that rely on access to forest areas. Although governments view protected areas as a measure for forest conservation, they pose a number of key challenges to local people's livelihoods.

In a number of developing countries, including Vietnam, the use of forest resources in protected areas have presented a threat to forest conservation outcomes. A satisfactory resolution to the tension between livelihoods and biodiversity conservation objectives in protected areas is an ongoing challenge for governments and local people living near protected areas.

Cat Tien National Park, a protected area in Dong Nai Province, Vietnam is well-known for its diversity of flora and fauna and offers a noteworthy case study. One of the issues in Cat Tien National Park is the practice of collecting non-timber forest products that is considered widespread, despite it being illegal under the protected status of the Park. Achieving forest conservation goals under these circumstances, even if extraction levels were low, appears to be a challenging task. In order to address livelihood challenges, governmental agencies, and non-governmental organisations have attempted to engage local people in alternative livelihood initiatives. These initiatives commonly seek to provide new income sources as a substitute for earnings from traditional livelihood practices, thereby reducing extraction pressures on the Park. These livelihood initiatives have been active in the last thirteen years.

The aim of this thesis is therefore to examine the performance of two alternative livelihood initiatives (the Talai Ecotourism Venture and the Forest Protection Team (FPT)) on local livelihoods for those ethnic groups living in close proximity to the Park and associated effects on forest conservation management goals. The research provided insights into the participation of local people in decisions about the management and conservation of forest resources in their role as FPT members. It also attempts to draw lessons that can be applied to alternative livelihood initiatives elsewhere in Vietnam and other developing countries. A case study approach with a mixed method has been employed in this study. Household surveys (n=150) of three ethnic groups (Chau Ma, Stieng and Kinh) and key informant interviews (n=36) were conducted to collect data on a range of aspects, including: household demographics, forest usage, and local views on the impact of the two alternative livelihood initiatives on their livelihood and perception of forest conservation. The key informants were interviewed at length about their roles, responsibilities, the quality of the local participation, and evaluation of the effectiveness of the two alternative livelihood initiatives on local livelihood and forest conservation. Field research findings were supplemented and triangulated with participant observation activities to gain insight into the physical, social, cultural, and economic aspects of the case context.

About one third of Chau Ma and Stieng households had a high reliance on NTFPs, while Kinh households had no reliance on NTFPs for their livelihood. The dependence on NTFPs for Chau Ma and Stieng people was a result of limited opportunities for other livelihood options due to relinquishing agricultural land and low education levels. For Chau Ma and Stieng people struggling to adjust from a subsistence forest-based livelihood to living outside the forest, around 41% continued to visit the forest for cultural reasons, but at low to moderate levels (63%).

A significant finding of the study is that the benefits of the alternative livelihood initiatives did not extend to the whole community and were focused largely on those ethnic minorities of Chau Ma and Stieng directly involved in the initiatives. Further, for the two alternative livelihood initiatives, the direct participants gained the greatest benefits either through employment, access to Village Development Fund, or greater access to NTFPs.

The study has also found that current livelihood initiatives have not been effective due to limited local participation in decision-making processes, and minimal interaction with local people outside the initiatives. Specifically, the governance of these initiatives was not aligned with communitybased principles. The one-way information sharing, and top-down decision-making led to the ethnic minorities assuming only a passive role in the process for the two alternative livelihood initiatives.

In addition, local members of both livelihood initiatives did not receive the training or support they required to effectively carry out their responsibilities. The results of the case studies also showed that there was a lack of responsiveness from key governing authorities such as the Private Company, Talai Forest Station, Park Board to variations in ethnic groups' socio-economic status, and levels of literacy. As a whole, such deficient governance arrangements and processes prevented the initiatives from achieving their goals and engaging with the broader community. In addition, evidence suggests that the Talai Ecotourism Venture and the Forest Protection Team initiatives have not led to a substantial change in local people's awareness of the importance of forest conservation and lessening the pressure on forest resource extraction as expected.

These findings demonstrate the need for better governance, which provide stakeholders with the ability to demonstrate their understanding and fulfil their responsibilities independently. A greater level of accountability and transparency in benefit sharing mechanisms such as Village Development Fund (Talai Ecotourism Venture), and Forest Protection Team reporting is also required for ensuring greater community participation and empowerment. Another important implication of improved accountability is for a more effective relationship between government, private enterprise and local people in decision making and empowering them in their roles. Finally, the findings also highlight the significance of capacity building for various stakeholders so that they can develop skills and knowledge required to carry out decision-making responsibilities in ecotourism and forest management. Most importantly, alternative livelihood initiatives need to be designed and implemented with sensitivity to the local cultures otherwise; they can limit potential equality and increase obstacles to local people's participation and decision-making. Thus, it is recommended that Indigenous knowledge should be recognized and incorporated into initiatives for protecting and managing forest resources.

While protected areas are a measure for forest conservation, they pose a number of key challenges to local people's livelihoods. One solution to the tension between conservation objectives and liveli-hoods in protected areas is involving local people in forest protec-tion activities. The research examined the performance of one initiative, involving Forest Protection Teams (FPTs), on the livelihoods of local people and participating members, and on forest conserva-tion. The research revealed that FPT activities had some benefits for team members but limited impact on local livelihoods. Additionally, most households stated that there was no detectable change in for-est condition because of team members' activities in forest protec-tion. For FPT members to take greater ownership of forest protection outcomes and communication of these outcomes, the program needs to be designed and implemented in a more partici-patory manner.

As an alternative livelihood approach to improve forest conservation and reduce dependency on non-wood forest products (NWFPs), the government of Vietnam has implemented community-based ecotourism (CBE) in the relation to protected area management. One such initiative is the Talai Ecotourism Venture for the ethnic groups living in the buffer zone of the Cat Tien National Park. This study through household survey (n = 150), and key informant interviews (n = 23), identified the impacts of the ecotourism venture on local people's livelihood and explored whether these impacts have reduced economic livelihood reliance on NWFPs, and increased awareness of forest conservation importance. Among households participating in the initiative, their level of NWFP dependency was 66% lower than those households not employed. In addition to the reduced dependency on NWFPs, the beneficiaries of the initiative also taking advantages of other benefits namely higher household income, access to benefit sharing mechanism, and heightened awareness of forest conservation. To scale out these benefits to similar livelihood interventions for forest conservation and community development goals, they need to be implemented equitably, and to attain an understanding of social-cultural norms in the area of the intervention, particularly local institutions, power structures, and differentiation of ethnic groups.