Anthropogenically modified pigments are held to be some of the earliest, most unambiguous and persistent evidence for behavioural modernity, frequently (and often tenuously) invoked as material expression of symbolic thought and action. Recent finds, increases in the sophistication of analytic techniques and theoretical frameworks have renewed interest in ochre, reflected by a spike in actualistic studies, investigations of pigment morphology and geochemistry. Archaeological studies continue a bias towards Pleistocene pigments, while archaeometric research continues to focus on ochre from known source locations, and in Australia, ethnographically documented mines. Here I take a different tack, targeting Holocene ochres, focusing on pigments with at least one known, indisputably symbolic function- the production of rock art. As part of the physical and metaphorical (cultural) landscape, rock art offers a unique pigment archive as it remains in the location in which it was created. A decade since the first published application of portable X-ray Fluorescence (pXRF) to rock art there has been an absence of critical scrutiny and methodological development. Aiming to redress this, I use conventional and Synchrotron X-ray Diffraction, Micro Computed Tomography and Scanning Electron Microscopy to explain and evaluate pXRF. I develop novel methods of using geochemical data to identify paint mineralogy (including differentiating between paints of the same colour), recognise the chemical signatures of taphonomy and compare ochres from excavated contexts with rock art. Interpreting the resultant elemental profiles relies on understanding the complex taphonomy of pigments and the chemical expression of non-cultural phenomena, something not adequately addressed previously. This work therefore offers a non-invasive means by which large scale studies of archaeological pigments can be undertaken.

Distinctive mulberry paintings found in northern Australia, particularly those of the Kimberley region, have been argued to represent some of the oldest surviving rock art on the continent. Significant research efforts continue to focus on resolving the age of these motifs, but comparatively little attention has been given to understanding their physical composition and potential source(s). In a pilot investigation, we conclude that (at least) two mineralogically distinct mulberry pigments occur in 'Gwion' motifs and demonstrate that their major components can be indicatively chemically differentiated, non-invasively. Characterization of a 'quarried' mulberry ochre source demonstrates that these pigments occur locally as natural minerals.

Archaic rock engravings are found widely across the arid interior of Australia and are thought to represent an early pan-continental tradition. A late Pleistocene age is assumed because of extensive weathering, but attempts to test this by direct dating have been unsuccessful. We use AMS ¹⁴C dating of calcium oxalate skins covering archaic engravings at two rock shelter sites in Central Australia (Wanga East and Puritjarra), constrained by ¹⁴C dates of charcoal in sedimentary layers beneath the same engraved slabs, to show this rock art is mid-Holocene in age. Despite a limited range of simple geometric designs and uniformity across the arid interior, this corpus of rock art is not associated with the initial peopling of the Australian desert, but is a later development reflecting the dynamics of established desert societies.

"Great antiquity" been claimed for the engraved rock art assemblage found in arid regions across Australia but it was not until more recently that a chronological measure was assigned to the phrase. A range of indirect evidence has led to claims that engraved assemblages may date from as early as 30,000 years ago although little direct dating of the petroglyphs has been undertaken to support such assertions. Ethnographic accounts document Indigenous informants assigning the origin and antiquity of engraved rock art to the 'Alcheringa' (Dreaming or Creation Time) or remote past. In an attempt to clarify the timing of the origins of engraved rock art assemblages in central Australia, a dating project was undertaken by Dr Mike Smith, Dr Alan Watchman and myself.

Associated Rock Art Traditions are surface modifications usually found in association with rock art. They are the product of repeated mechanical actions and usually lack the figurative elements of stylistic rock art traditions. While pecked cupules, fingerfluting, abraded areas, and abaded grooves are well documented both in the archaeological and ethnographic record, flaked edges have received limited recognition as an Associated Rock Art Tradition. This thesis will examine bedrock flaking as another example of an Associated Rock Art Tradition. Research was conducted in the northwest Kimberley where linear panels of bedrock flaking are abundant in association with rock art. Seventy eight sites were recorded across six (6) research areas, containing 1719 bedrock flaking panels from which 10,178 flake scars were recorded. Sites were classified as Quarry sites - abundant flaking debris; Ritual sites - limited flaking debris and rock art; and Other - limited flaking debris and no rock art. The analysis of variables from panels and flake scar measurements showed that Quarry sites were significantly different to Ritual and Other sites, containing a high quantity of larger flake scars. Ritual and Other sites were much harder to differentiate, containing flakes of similar dimensions but of varying stone quality and scar quantity. Other sites contained limited bedrock flaking panels and were interpreted as prospecting sites, where stone was assayed. Ritual sites had high numbers of bedrock flaking panels, but with much smaller flake scars than found at Quarry sites and very limited flaking debris. It is proposed here that bedrock flaking at Ritual sites represent an Associated Rock Art Tradition rather than an economic activity. The mechanical similarities between pounding and bedrock flaking may have led to these being viewed as closely related ritualised behaviours along with rubbing, hammering and incising which have been recorded ethnographically and archaeologically as Associated Rock Art Traditions.