'Australopithecus sediba' has been hypothesized to be a close relative of the genus 'Homo'. Here we show that MH1, the type specimen of 'A. sediba', was not optimized to produce high molar bite force and appears to have been limited in its ability to consume foods that were mechanically challenging to eat. Dental microwear data have previously been interpreted as indicating that 'A. sediba' consumed hard foods, so our findings illustrate that mechanical data are essential if one aims to reconstruct a relatively complete picture of feeding adaptations in extinct hominins. An implication of our study is that the key to understanding the origin of 'Homo' lies in understanding how environmental changes disrupted gracile australopith niches. Resulting selection pressures led to changes in diet and dietary adaption that set the stage for the emergence of our genus.

The internal and external anatomy of the primate zygoma is central to orofacial function, health, and disease. The importance of variation in its gross morphology across extinct and extant primate forms has been established using finite element analysis, but its internal structure has yet to be explored. In this study, µCT is used to characterize trabecular bone morphometry in two separate regions of the zygoma of humans and 'Pan'. Trabecular anisotropy and orientation are compared with strain orientations observed in trabecular regions of finite element models of four Pan crania. The results of this study show that trabecular bone morphometry, anisotropy, and orientation are highly compatible with strain orientation and magnitude in the finite element models. Trabecular bone in the zygoma is largely orthotropic (with bone orientation differing in three mutually orthogonal directions), with its primary orientation lying in the mediolateral direction. Trabecular bone in the zygomatic region appears to be highly influenced by the local strain environment, and thus may be closely linked to orofacial function.

The basicranium and facial skeleton are two integrated structures displaying great morphological diversity across primates. Previous studies focusing on limited taxonomic samples have demonstrated that morphological integration has a significant impact on the evolution of these structures. However, this influence is still poorly understood. A more complete understanding of craniofacial integration across primates has important implications for functional hypotheses of primate evolution. In the present study, we analyzed a large sample of primate species to assess how integration affects the relationship between basicranial and facial evolutionary pathways across the order. First, we quantified integration and modularity between basicranium and face using phylogenetically-informed partial least squares analyses. Then, we defined the influence of morphological integration between these structures on rates of evolution, using a time-calibrated phylogenetic tree, and on disparity through time, comparing the morphological disparity across the tree with that expected under a pure Brownian process. Finally, we assessed the correlation between the basicranium and face, and three factors purported to have an important role in shaping these structures during evolution: endocranial volume, positional behavior (i.e., locomotion and posture), and diet. Our findings show that the face and basicranium, despite being highly integrated, display significantly different evolutionary rates. However, our results demonstrate that morphological integration impacted shape disparity through time. We also found that endocranial volume and positional behavior are important drivers of cranial shape evolution, partly affected by morphological integration.

The evolution of the modern human ('Homo sapiens') cranium is characterized by a reduction in the size of the feeding system, including reductions in the size of the facial skeleton, postcanine teeth, and the muscles involved in biting and chewing. The conventional view hypothesizes that gracilization of the human feeding system is related to a shift toward eating foods that were less mechanically challenging to consume and/or foods that were processed using tools before being ingested. This hypothesis predicts that human feeding systems should not be well-configured to produce forceful bites and that the cranium should be structurally weak. An alternate hypothesis, based on the observation that humans have mechanically efficient jaw adductors, states that the modern human face is adapted to generate and withstand high biting forces. We used finite element analysis (FEA) to test two opposing mechanical hypotheses: That compared to our closest living relative, chimpanzees ('Pan troglodytes'), the modern human craniofacial skeleton is (1) less well configured, or (2) better configured to generate and withstand high magnitude bite forces. We considered intraspecific variation in our examination of human feeding biomechanics by examining a sample of geographically diverse crania that differed notably in shape.We found that our biomechanical models of human crania had broadly similar mechanical behavior despite their shape variation and were, on average, less structurally stiff than the crania of chimpanzees during unilateral biting when loaded with physiologically-scaled muscle loads. Our results also show that modern humans are efficient producers of bite force, consistent with previous analyses. However, highly tensile reaction forces were generated at the working (biting) side jaw joint during unilateral molar bites in which the chewing muscles were recruited with bilateral symmetry. In life, such a configuration would have increased the risk of joint dislocation and constrained the maximum recruitment levels of the masticatory muscles on the balancing (non-biting) side of the head. Our results do not necessarily conflict with the hypothesis that anterior tooth (incisors, canines, premolars) biting could have been selectively important in humans, although the reduced size of the premolars in humans has been shown to increase the risk of tooth crown fracture. We interpret our results to suggest that human craniofacial evolution was probably not driven by selection for high magnitude unilateral biting, and that increased masticatory muscle efficiency in humans is likely to be a secondary byproduct of selection for some function unrelated to forceful biting behaviors. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that a shift to softer foods and/or the innovation of pre-oral food processing techniques relaxed selective pressures maintaining craniofacial features that favor forceful biting and chewing behaviors, leading to the characteristically small and gracile faces of modern humans.

The craniofacial skeleton is often described in the clinical literature as being comprised of vertical bony pillars, which transmit forces from the toothrow to the neurocranium as axial compressive stresses, reinforced transversely by buttresses. Here, we review the literature on bony microarchitecture, 'in vivo' bone strain, and finite-element modeling of the facial skeleton of humans and nonhuman primates to address questions regarding the structural and functional existence of facial pillars and buttresses. Available bone material properties data do not support the existence of pillars and buttresses in humans or 'Sapajus apella'. Deformation regimes in the zygomatic complex emphasize bending and shear, therefore conceptualizing the zygomatic complex of humans or nonhuman primates as a pillar obscures its patterns of stress, strain, and deformation. Human fossil relatives and chimpanzees exhibit strain regimes corroborating the existence of a canine-frontal pillar, but the notion of a zygomatic pillar has no support. The emerging consensus on patterns of strain and deformation in finite element models (FEMs) of the human facial skeleton corroborates hypotheses in the clinical literature regarding zygomatic complex function, and provide new insights into patterns of failure of titanium and resorbable plates in experimental studies. It is suggested that the "pillar and buttress" model of human craniofacial skeleton function be replaced with FEMs that more accurately and precisely represent in vivo function, and which can serve as the basis for future research into implants used in restoration of occlusal function and fracture repair.