This paper investigates the geopolitical factors that have been the catalyst for the Rohingya crisis, with special attention on the roles of China and India. It then situates those views through 20 in-depth interviews of informants from Bangladesh who are experts in South and Southeast Asian politics. Bangladesh has borne the brunt of accommodating the fleeing Rohingyas and is currently bearing the ensuing socio-economic costs. The research findings suggest that as a result of Chinese and Indian strategic interest in Myanmar and competition for regional dominance, the Rohingya have become the meat in the sandwich, and the 'Rohingya crisis' has been propelled into a status quo.

Part of the appeal of digital health interventions, including mHealth, is the potential for greater reach in places where conventional health promotion is hampered by geographical, financial or social barriers. Yet, 'engagement' – typically understood as user experience and interactions with technology - remains a persistent challenge, particularly in places where technology access or familiarity with technology is limited. We undertook an evaluation of a childrearing app to promote socioemotional and cognitive development in early childhood across the world. In this article, we present findings from qualitative research on app rollout in Indonesia, the first of numerous low- and middle-income countries targeted by the app. We draw on systems theory and complexity thinking to broaden the lens of 'engagement' beyond individual users to encompass collective systems (families and communities), exploring how the intervention was harnessed to meet local contextual needs. The qualitative research involved semi-structured interviews, workshops and audio diaries with 57 diverse stakeholders, including Indonesian parents, caregivers, and collaborators involved in funding, development, and dissemination of the app. We observed the importance of social connection, sense-making, and interactive learning for enhancing engagement with the app and its messages. Enthusiastic users, strongly linked across community networks (e.g. kindergarten teachers), improvised dissemination strategies to facilitate uptake. Interactive learning that tapped into familiar social structures (e.g. intergenerational hierarchies) was crucial for engagement. Understanding ways the app failed to tap into structures of social connection served to highlight the need to embed strategies to support collective engagement.

The long-standing Rohingya crisis has become complicated due to geopolitical complexities, and more than a million Rohingya refugees remain stranded in Bangladesh. This situation has had a dramatic impact on Bangladesh. Shortages of international funding exacerbate the situation further, and a regional security threat could be created if the current situation continues unabated. The empirical research undertaken in this paper examines the impact of the Rohingya refugees on the social, economic, and political aspects of Bangladesh from a micro level perspective. This study follows a qualitative research methodology that uses analysis of documents and analytical interpretations of 20 in-depth interviews from Bangladesh. Environmental destruction and the government's dilemma with controlling law and order are apparent consequences of the Rohingya influx. Competition in the labor market, economic hardships, acquiring land, and deforestation create a conflict between the host community and the Rohingya refugee group. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar is a longstanding geopolitical dilemma. The Myanmar Government maligned Rohingya illegal settlers from Bengal. They have been forcibly displaced from their homes in Myanmar at different times, most recently conducting ethnic cleansing and genocidal activities against them in 2017. Though The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights acknowledged that the clearance operation by the Myanmar military was a "textbook example of ethnic cleansing," the UN and international community failed to protect the Rohingya and stop the onslaught on them. This research aims to gain an in-depth understanding of factors contributing to the crisis that led to forced migration and ethnic cleansing of Rohingya people, who were rendered stateless. This empirical study was designed using a qualitative methodology" it analysed data derived from semi-structured conversations with Rohingya people in Kutupalong Rohingya Refugee Camp, Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, and 'expert' interviewees involving different professionals in Bangladesh. Observations and documents were also used in data collection. The study is significant for understanding different trajectories of the problem, which will enable to find a resolution for the enduring crisis to international actors. I argue that religious prejudice was the driving force for the Rohingya migration. I argue that ARSA (Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army) and the Burmese military are evidently connected. ARSA attacks and communal violence in Rakhine served the Myanmar government's objective in justifying acts of violent retaliation. The power imbalance between military and civilian governments and Suu Kyi's policy tilt towards the military contributed to ethnic cleansing and genocide. Sino-Indian geopolitical competition has emerged as a dominant influencing factor for the Rohingya crisis and propelled into a status quo. The main refugee-hosting country, Bangladesh, faced environmental destruction, and the government's dilemma with controlling law and order is an apparent consequence of the Rohingya influx.

The United Nations embraced the doctrine of "Responsibility to Protect" (R2P) in 2005, which states that it is a shared responsibility of the international community to protect peoples from the atrocities of war crimes, crimes against humanity, ethnic cleansing, and genocide. Regarding Myanmar, the UN Human Rights Council claimed there were gross violations of human rights and international law in Myanmar's Rakhine state. Also, the UN Independent Fact-Finding Mission found evidence of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes, and accordingly requested that the international community employ R2P to protect the Rohingya people. The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights acknowledged the clearance operation that occurred on 25 August 2017 at the hands of the Myanmar military regime was a "textbook example of ethnic cleansing". In spite of this, the international community has taken no effective measures to protect the Rohingya community from what was an "entirely predictable" act of genocide. This paper is a qualitative investigation, a review of possible strategic reasons for why the international community has failed to protect the Rohingya. The paper relies on secondary scholarly literature, policy records, UN, government, and NGO reports, grey literature sources, and online materials. ASEAN's non-interference strategy, the OIC's dependency on diplomacy, the EU's priority for the hybrid democratic transition of Myanmar, the UN's political dialogue strategy, and the UN Security Council's structural weaknesses are obstacles to the international community preventing genocide in Myanmar. This study contributes to understanding the strategies of ASEAN, OIC, EU, UN, ICC, and the ICJ in relation to the Rohingya issue. It examines the chances of these organisations championing R2P, and also considers whether the Rohingya crisis is too intractable or difficult to resolve under current arrangements.

Background: Emerging evidence suggests that positive impacts can be generated when digital health interventions are designed to be responsive to the cultural and socioeconomic context of their intended audiences.

Objective: This narrative review aims to synthesize the literature about the cultural adaptation of digital health interventions. It examines how concepts of culture and context feature in design and development processes, including the methods, models, and content of these interventions, with the aim of helping researchers to make informed decisions about how to approach cultural adaptation in digital health.

Results: The literature demonstrates varying approaches and levels of cultural adaptation across stages of intervention development, involving considerations such as the research ethos orienting researchers, the methodologies and models used, and the resultant content adaptations. In relation to the latter, culturally appropriate and accessible user interface design and translation can be seen as particularly important in shaping the level of adaptation.

Conclusions: Optimizing cultural adaptation involves linking culture with other contextual factors such as economic conditions and social systems to ensure accessibility and the sustained use of digital health interventions. Culturally humble approaches that use the involvement of a broad range of participants, experts, and other stakeholders are demonstrated to spark vital insights for content development, implementation, and evaluation.

This edited book entitled Refugee Education in South Asia: Policies, Practices, and Implications aims to understand the policies, practices, and limitations of refugee education in four South Asian countries: Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. Evidence presents that refugee education in three countries including Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan is being viewed as a relief activity and education for Bhutanese refugees in Nepal is being observed as a development activity. This book suggests that refugee education in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan should be provided from a development view by which refugee children and youth can live with honor and dignity if they get an opportunity to be integrated into host countries, resettled in third countries, or repatriated in their home countries.

The Rohingya crisis of Myanmar is a longstanding geopolitical predicament that has remained unresolved for 42 years, since 1978. Many of the stateless, and now stranded, Rohingya have been driven out of Myanmar to take refuge in other countries or forced to live in internally displaced persons (IDP) camps within the state of Rakhine. ARSA (Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army) attacks became an automatic excuse for genocidal activities against Rohingyas at the hands of the Myanmar government. ARSA attacks and communal violence in Rakhine both served the Myanmar government's objective, providing justification for acts of violent retaliation. This paper examines root causes of Rohingya exile and displacement. The researcher collected data from 20 expert participants in Bangladesh and 71 displaced Rohingya victims living in the Kutupalong Rohingya Refugee Camp within Bangladesh. These data indicate the interaction of various factors, including historical legacy of conflict, religious dissension, racism, lack of social integration of Rohingyas into the mainstream Burmese community, geo-economic factors, discriminatory state policy and conflict politics of ARSA, all of which contribute to what has become the Rohingya crisis. The paper discusses theoretical and practical implications of these interacting influences.

Objective: The Thrive by Five app promotes positive interactions between children and parents, extended family, and trusted community members that support optimal socio-emotional and cognitive development in the early years. This article aims to describe the protocol for a prospective mixed-methods multi-site study evaluating Thrive by Five using surveys, interviews, workshops, audio diaries from citizen ethnographers and app usage data.

Methods: The study activities and timelines differ by site, with an extensive longitudinal evaluation being conducted at two sites and a basic evaluation being conducted at five sites. The learnings from the more comprehensive evaluations inform the iterative research and development processes while also ensuring ongoing evaluation of usability, acceptability and effectiveness of the app and its content across varying contexts. The study evaluates: (1) the impact of the Thrive by Five content on caregiver knowledge, behaviours, attitudes and confidence" (2) how the content changes relationships at the familial, community and system level" (3) how cultural and contextual factors influence content engagement and effectiveness and (4) the processes that facilitate or disrupt the success of the implementation and dissemination.

Results: All in-country partners have been identified and data collection has been completed in Indonesia, Malaysia, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Namibia and Cameroon.

Conclusions: Very few digital health solutions have been trialled for usability and effectiveness in diverse cultural contexts. By combining quantitative, qualitative, process and ethnographic methodologies, this innovative study informs the iterative and ongoing optimisation of the cultural and contextual sensitivity of the Thrive by Five content and the processes supporting implementation and dissemination.