Problems associated with muddy pens have been identified as some of the most serious animal welfare issues related to outdoor feedlot beef production, but there is relatively little work examining the use of woodchip bedding for lot-fed beef cattle under conditions of cold, wet, but non-freezing winters on soil under-bases. This study examined the effects of graded levels of woodchip on the performance and behaviour of feedlot cattle housed in wet pen conditions. Bos taurus steers (n = 300" 379.1 ± 24.1 kg) were blocked by weight and breed and randomly assigned to 30 10-steer feedlot pens provided with either no woodchip bedding (Control, n = 10) manure interface only, or 15 cm depth of woodchip bedding (W15, n = 10) or 30 cm depth of woodchip bedding (W30, n = 10). The steers were housed in these treatment pens for 109 days on a feedlot ration, and the pens were irrigated so that approximately 74 mm of total precipitation (irrigation + natural rainfall) fell onto the pen surface every 30 days. Temperatures were mostly <20 C maximum and 1 to 5 C minimum. Steers were weighed on five occasions. Animal position and posture in pen were recorded once a week over an 8-hour day-time period. Carcase characteristics were measured, and adrenal gland weights were recorded. Providing woodchip bedding increased liveweight gain (P < 0.001) and gain:feed (G:F, P = 0.012) after day 28, increased DM intake (DMI) after day 92 (P = 0.049), and increased carcase weight (P = 0.001) and dressing percentage (P = 0.023). There was no additional benefit of W30 over W15 for liveweight gain or DMI, but the benefit of W15 for G:F was lower than that of W30 by the end of the feeding period (P = 0.012). There were no effects of bedding on other carcase quality traits. Steers in Control pens utilised the front of the pen for lying and standing more than the W15 and W30 steers (P < 0.001) suggesting the steers in the Control pens perceived the front of the pen as less aversive, potentially due to increased drainage compared to rest of the pen and proximity to feed bunk. Adrenal gland weight/kg and carcase weight tended to be higher in the Control treatment group than the W30 steers (P = 0.077). This research has demonstrated that for a 109-day feeding period in cold, wet conditions, steer performance and welfare can be improved by providing a minimum of 15 cm woodchip bedding.

Protected forest areas worldwide are located close to forest dependent communities that continue to use forest resources for their livelihoods to varying extents. With these areas designated as protected areas it prevents local people from practising their traditional income-generating or subsistence activities that rely on access to forest areas. Although governments view protected areas as a measure for forest conservation, they pose a number of key challenges to local people's livelihoods.

In a number of developing countries, including Vietnam, the use of forest resources in protected areas have presented a threat to forest conservation outcomes. A satisfactory resolution to the tension between livelihoods and biodiversity conservation objectives in protected areas is an ongoing challenge for governments and local people living near protected areas.

Cat Tien National Park, a protected area in Dong Nai Province, Vietnam is well-known for its diversity of flora and fauna and offers a noteworthy case study. One of the issues in Cat Tien National Park is the practice of collecting non-timber forest products that is considered widespread, despite it being illegal under the protected status of the Park. Achieving forest conservation goals under these circumstances, even if extraction levels were low, appears to be a challenging task. In order to address livelihood challenges, governmental agencies, and non-governmental organisations have attempted to engage local people in alternative livelihood initiatives. These initiatives commonly seek to provide new income sources as a substitute for earnings from traditional livelihood practices, thereby reducing extraction pressures on the Park. These livelihood initiatives have been active in the last thirteen years.

The aim of this thesis is therefore to examine the performance of two alternative livelihood initiatives (the Talai Ecotourism Venture and the Forest Protection Team (FPT)) on local livelihoods for those ethnic groups living in close proximity to the Park and associated effects on forest conservation management goals. The research provided insights into the participation of local people in decisions about the management and conservation of forest resources in their role as FPT members. It also attempts to draw lessons that can be applied to alternative livelihood initiatives elsewhere in Vietnam and other developing countries. A case study approach with a mixed method has been employed in this study. Household surveys (n=150) of three ethnic groups (Chau Ma, Stieng and Kinh) and key informant interviews (n=36) were conducted to collect data on a range of aspects, including: household demographics, forest usage, and local views on the impact of the two alternative livelihood initiatives on their livelihood and perception of forest conservation. The key informants were interviewed at length about their roles, responsibilities, the quality of the local participation, and evaluation of the effectiveness of the two alternative livelihood initiatives on local livelihood and forest conservation. Field research findings were supplemented and triangulated with participant observation activities to gain insight into the physical, social, cultural, and economic aspects of the case context.

About one third of Chau Ma and Stieng households had a high reliance on NTFPs, while Kinh households had no reliance on NTFPs for their livelihood. The dependence on NTFPs for Chau Ma and Stieng people was a result of limited opportunities for other livelihood options due to relinquishing agricultural land and low education levels. For Chau Ma and Stieng people struggling to adjust from a subsistence forest-based livelihood to living outside the forest, around 41% continued to visit the forest for cultural reasons, but at low to moderate levels (63%).

A significant finding of the study is that the benefits of the alternative livelihood initiatives did not extend to the whole community and were focused largely on those ethnic minorities of Chau Ma and Stieng directly involved in the initiatives. Further, for the two alternative livelihood initiatives, the direct participants gained the greatest benefits either through employment, access to Village Development Fund, or greater access to NTFPs.

The study has also found that current livelihood initiatives have not been effective due to limited local participation in decision-making processes, and minimal interaction with local people outside the initiatives. Specifically, the governance of these initiatives was not aligned with communitybased principles. The one-way information sharing, and top-down decision-making led to the ethnic minorities assuming only a passive role in the process for the two alternative livelihood initiatives.

In addition, local members of both livelihood initiatives did not receive the training or support they required to effectively carry out their responsibilities. The results of the case studies also showed that there was a lack of responsiveness from key governing authorities such as the Private Company, Talai Forest Station, Park Board to variations in ethnic groups' socio-economic status, and levels of literacy. As a whole, such deficient governance arrangements and processes prevented the initiatives from achieving their goals and engaging with the broader community. In addition, evidence suggests that the Talai Ecotourism Venture and the Forest Protection Team initiatives have not led to a substantial change in local people's awareness of the importance of forest conservation and lessening the pressure on forest resource extraction as expected.

These findings demonstrate the need for better governance, which provide stakeholders with the ability to demonstrate their understanding and fulfil their responsibilities independently. A greater level of accountability and transparency in benefit sharing mechanisms such as Village Development Fund (Talai Ecotourism Venture), and Forest Protection Team reporting is also required for ensuring greater community participation and empowerment. Another important implication of improved accountability is for a more effective relationship between government, private enterprise and local people in decision making and empowering them in their roles. Finally, the findings also highlight the significance of capacity building for various stakeholders so that they can develop skills and knowledge required to carry out decision-making responsibilities in ecotourism and forest management. Most importantly, alternative livelihood initiatives need to be designed and implemented with sensitivity to the local cultures otherwise; they can limit potential equality and increase obstacles to local people's participation and decision-making. Thus, it is recommended that Indigenous knowledge should be recognized and incorporated into initiatives for protecting and managing forest resources.

The impact of cold stress on feedlot cattle has received limited investigation in temperate climates. However, cold stress has been found to impact cattle welfare and production in temperate climatic conditions, where ambient temperature (T_A), precipitation, relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS) and solar radiation (SR) all influencing apparent temperature. While there are many indices to quantify cold stress in cattle, there are limited indices that directly relate to cattle and account for all the interactions between climatic variables. This makes cold stress difficult to quantify, with on-cattle measures such as core body temperature and shivering difficult metrics to obtain in feedlot cattle. Moreover, individual cattle will react differently to cold conditions based on their production, age, sex, coat characteristics (colour and type), breed and nutrition. While cold stress can be difficult to measure, the production status, behavioural and physiological effects of cold stress have been identified, but generally under what could be considered as extreme cold stress events. Similarly, while mitigation strategies such as shelter, bedding and windbreaks have been investigated, limited information is available surrounding their usefulness in temperate climates. Further research is needed to fully investigate the effects of cold stress and how to mitigate those effects in feedlot cattle under conditions, such as those found in Australia.

While protected areas are a measure for forest conservation, they pose a number of key challenges to local people's livelihoods. One solution to the tension between conservation objectives and liveli-hoods in protected areas is involving local people in forest protec-tion activities. The research examined the performance of one initiative, involving Forest Protection Teams (FPTs), on the livelihoods of local people and participating members, and on forest conserva-tion. The research revealed that FPT activities had some benefits for team members but limited impact on local livelihoods. Additionally, most households stated that there was no detectable change in for-est condition because of team members' activities in forest protec-tion. For FPT members to take greater ownership of forest protection outcomes and communication of these outcomes, the program needs to be designed and implemented in a more partici-patory manner.

Ammonia (NH₃) emissions from manure can contribute to negative welfare outcomes for both humans and animals in livestock industries, and techniques to limit NH₃ volatilisation from the manure pad are being researched (McCrory and Hobbs 2001). Zeolite is a naturally occurring aluminosilicate present in sedimentary rock, compositionally similar to clay minerals but characterised by a unique three-dimensional structure and high cation exchange capacity that can selectively retain ammonium (NH₄⁺) ions (Ramesh and Reddy 2011). The current recommended application rates are highly variable, depending on industry application and particle diameter, and there is opportunity to investigate the capacity for adsorption of ambient NH₃ from the air. This experiment aimed to determine the most effective zeolite application rate for reduction of NH₃ volatilisation from the cattle manure pad, and to test ambient application of zeolite, in vitro.

As an alternative livelihood approach to improve forest conservation and reduce dependency on non-wood forest products (NWFPs), the government of Vietnam has implemented community-based ecotourism (CBE) in the relation to protected area management. One such initiative is the Talai Ecotourism Venture for the ethnic groups living in the buffer zone of the Cat Tien National Park. This study through household survey (n = 150), and key informant interviews (n = 23), identified the impacts of the ecotourism venture on local people's livelihood and explored whether these impacts have reduced economic livelihood reliance on NWFPs, and increased awareness of forest conservation importance. Among households participating in the initiative, their level of NWFP dependency was 66% lower than those households not employed. In addition to the reduced dependency on NWFPs, the beneficiaries of the initiative also taking advantages of other benefits namely higher household income, access to benefit sharing mechanism, and heightened awareness of forest conservation. To scale out these benefits to similar livelihood interventions for forest conservation and community development goals, they need to be implemented equitably, and to attain an understanding of social-cultural norms in the area of the intervention, particularly local institutions, power structures, and differentiation of ethnic groups.